Modern space exploration. Why does humanity need to study space? The clue to the origin of the planets
Space... One word, and how many mesmerizing pictures appear before your eyes! Myriads of galaxies scattered throughout the Universe, the distant and at the same time infinitely close and dear Milky Way, the constellations Ursa Major and Ursa Minor, peacefully located in the vast sky... The list can be endless. In this article we will get acquainted with the history and some interesting facts.
Space exploration in ancient times: how did they look at the stars before?
In ancient times, people could not observe planets and comets through powerful telescopes like Hubble. The only instruments for admiring the beauty of the sky and performing space exploration were their own eyes. Of course, human “telescopes” could not see anything except the Sun, Moon and stars (except for the comet in 1812). Therefore, people could only guess about what these yellow and white balls in the sky actually look like. But even then the population of the globe was attentive, so they quickly noticed that these two circles were moving across the sky, then hiding behind the horizon, then appearing again. They also discovered that not all stars behave the same way: some of them remain stationary, while others change their position along a complex trajectory. This is where the great exploration of outer space and what lies in it began.
The ancient Greeks achieved particular success in this field. They were the first to discover that our planet is spherical. Their opinions about the location of the Earth relative to the Sun were divided: some scientists believed that it revolved around a celestial body, others believed that it was the other way around (they were supporters of the geocentric system of the world). The ancient Greeks never came to a consensus. All their works and space research were captured on paper and compiled into a whole scientific work called “Almagest”. Its author and compiler is the great ancient scientist Ptolemy.
The Renaissance and the destruction of previous ideas about space
Nicolaus Copernicus - who hasn't heard this name? It was he who, in the 15th century, destroyed the erroneous theory of the geocentric system of the world and put forward his own, heliocentric, which argued that the Earth revolves around the Sun, and not vice versa. The medieval Inquisition and the church, unfortunately, did not sleep. They immediately declared such speeches heretical, and the followers of Copernicus’ theory were brutally persecuted. One of her supporters, Giordano Bruno, was burned at the stake. His name has remained for centuries, and to this day we remember the great scientist with respect and gratitude.
Growing Interest in Space
After these events, the attention of scientists to astronomy only intensified. Space exploration has become more and more exciting. As soon as the 17th century began, a new large-scale discovery occurred: the researcher Kepler discovered that the orbits in which the planets revolve around the Sun are not at all round, as previously thought, but elliptical. Thanks to this event, major changes occurred in science. In particular, he discovered mechanics and was able to describe the patterns by which bodies move.
Discovery of new planets
Today we know that there are eight planets in the solar system. Until 2006, their number was nine, but after that the most recent and distant planet from heat and light - Pluto - was excluded from the number of bodies orbiting our celestial body. This happened due to its small size - the area of Russia alone is already larger than the entire Pluto. It was given the status of a dwarf planet.
Until the 17th century, people believed that there were five planets in the solar system. There were no telescopes then, so they judged only by those celestial bodies that they could see with their own eyes. Scientists could not see anything further than Saturn with its icy rings. We would probably still be mistaken to this day if it weren’t for Galileo Galilei. It was he who invented telescopes and helped scientists explore other planets and see the rest of the celestial bodies of the solar system. Thanks to the telescope, it became known about the existence of mountains and craters on the Moon, Saturn, and Mars. Also, the same Galileo Galilei discovered spots on the Sun. Science not only developed, it flew forward by leaps and bounds. And by the beginning of the twentieth century, scientists already knew enough to build the first one and set off to conquer the stars.
Soviet scientists conducted significant space research and achieved great success in the study of astronomy and the development of shipbuilding. True, more than 50 years passed from the beginning of the 20th century before the first space satellite set off to conquer the vastness of the Universe. This happened in 1957. The device was launched in the USSR from the Baikonur Cosmodrome. The first satellites were not chasing high results - their goal was to reach the Moon. The first space exploration device landed on the lunar surface in 1959. And also in the 20th century, the Institute of Space Research was opened, where serious scientific work was developed and discoveries were made.
Soon, satellite launches became commonplace, and yet only one mission to land on another planet ended successfully. We are talking about the Apollo project, during which, according to the official version, Americans landed on the Moon several times.
International "space race"
1961 became a memorable year in the history of astronautics. But even earlier, in 1960, two dogs, whose names the whole world knows: Belka and Strelka, went into space. They returned from space safe and sound, having become famous and becoming real heroes.
And on April 12 of the following year, Yuri Gagarin, the first person who dared to leave the Earth on the Vostok-1 ship, set off to explore the expanses of the Universe.
The United States of America did not want to cede primacy to the USSR in the space race, so they wanted to send their man into space before Gagarin. The United States also lost in launching satellites: Russia managed to launch the device four months before America. Such space explorers as Valentina Tereshkova and the latter were the first in the world to perform a spacewalk, and the most significant achievement of the United States in the exploration of the Universe was only launching an astronaut into orbital flight.
But, despite the significant successes of the USSR in the “space race,” America was also no slouch. And on July 16, 1969, the Apollo 11 spacecraft, carrying five space explorers on board, launched towards the surface of the Moon. Five days later, the first man set foot on the surface of the Earth's satellite. His name was Neil Armstrong.
Victory or defeat?
Who actually won the lunar race? There is no exact answer to this question. Both the USSR and the USA showed their best side: they modernized and improved technical achievements in space shipbuilding, made many new discoveries, and took invaluable samples from the surface of the Moon, which were sent to the Space Research Institute. Thanks to them, it was established that the Earth's satellite consists of sand and stone, and that there is no air on the Moon. The traces of Neil Armstrong, left more than forty years ago on the lunar surface, are still there today. There is simply nothing to erase them: our satellite is deprived of air, there is no wind, no water. And if you go to the Moon, you can leave your mark on history - both literally and figuratively.
Conclusion
Human history is rich and vast, including many great discoveries, wars, epic victories and devastating defeats. The exploration of extraterrestrial space and modern space research rightfully occupy far from the last place on the pages of history. But none of this would have happened without such brave and selfless people as Nicolaus Copernicus, Yuri Gagarin, Sergei Korolev, Galileo Galilei, Giordano Bruno and many, many others. All these great people were distinguished by their outstanding intelligence, developed abilities for studying physics and mathematics, strong character and iron will. We have a lot to learn from them; we can adopt invaluable experience and positive qualities and character traits from these scientists. If humanity tries to be like them, read a lot, train, study successfully at school and university, then we can say with confidence that we still have many great discoveries ahead, and deep space will soon be explored. And, as one famous song says, our traces will remain on the dusty paths of distant planets.
Secrets will be revealed to us,
Distant worlds will shine...
A.Blok
INTRODUCTION
THE UNIVERSE is the eternal mystery of existence, an alluring mystery forever. For there is no end to knowledge. There is only continuous overcoming of the boundaries of the unknown. But as soon as this step is taken, new horizons open up. And behind them are new secrets. So it was, and so it will always be. Especially in the knowledge of Space. The word "cosmos" comes from the Greek "kosmos", a synonym for the astronomical definition of the Universe. The Universe means the entire existing material world, limitless in time and space and infinitely diverse in the forms that matter takes in the process of its development. The universe studied by astronomy is a part of the material world that is accessible to research by astronomical means corresponding to the achieved level of development of science.
Often a distinction is made between near space, explored with the help of spacecraft and interplanetary stations, and deep space - the world of stars and galaxies.
The great German philosopher Immanuel Kant once remarked that there are only two things worthy of true surprise and admiration: the starry sky above us and the moral law within us. The ancients believed that both are inextricably linked. Space determines the past, present and future of humanity and each individual person. In the language of modern science, all information about the Universe is encoded in Man. Life and Space are inseparable.
Man constantly strived for Heaven. First - with thought, gaze and on the wings, then - with the help of aeronautics and aircraft, spaceships and orbital stations. No one even suspected the existence of galaxies in the last century. No one perceived the Milky Way as an arm of a giant cosmic spiral. Even with modern knowledge, it is impossible to see such a spiral from the inside. One must go many, many light years beyond its boundaries to see our Galaxy in its true spiral form. However, astronomical observations and mathematical calculations, graphic and computer modeling, as well as abstract theoretical thinking make it possible to do this without leaving home. But this became possible only as a result of the long and thorny development of science. The more we learn about the Universe, the more new questions arise.
THE MAIN TOOL OF ASTRONOMERS
The entire history of the study of the Universe is, in essence, the search and discovery of means that improve human vision. Until the beginning of the 17th century. The naked eye was the only optical instrument of astronomers. All the astronomical technology of the ancients came down to the creation of various goniometric instruments, as accurate and durable as possible. Already the first telescopes immediately sharply increased the resolving and penetrating ability of the human eye. Gradually, receivers of invisible radiation were created and currently we perceive the Universe in all ranges of the electromagnetic spectrum - from gamma radiation to ultra-long radio waves.
Moreover, corpuscular radiation receivers have been created that capture the smallest particles - corpuscles (mainly atomic nuclei and electrons) coming to us from celestial bodies. The totality of all cosmic radiation receivers is capable of recording objects from which light rays reach us over many billions of years. Essentially, the entire history of world astronomy and cosmology is divided into two parts unequal in time - before and after the invention of the telescope. The 20th century generally expanded the boundaries of observational astronomy to an extraordinary extent. To the extremely improved optical telescopes, new, previously completely unprecedented ones were added - radio telescopes, and then X-ray telescopes (which are applicable only in airless space and in outer space). Also, with the help of satellites, gamma-ray telescopes are used, which make it possible to record unique information about distant objects and extreme states of matter in the Universe.
To record ultraviolet and infrared radiation, telescopes with lenses made of arsenic trisulfur glass are used. With the help of this equipment, it was possible to discover many previously unknown objects and to comprehend important and amazing patterns of the Universe. Thus, near the center of our galaxy, a mysterious infrared object was discovered, the luminosity of which is 300,000 times greater than the luminosity of the Sun. Its nature is still unclear. Other powerful sources of infrared radiation located in other galaxies and extragalactic space have also been recorded.
TO OPEN SPACE!
The universe is so huge that astronomers still haven't been able to figure out how big it is! However, thanks to recent advances in science and technology, we have learned a lot about space and our place in it. In the last 50 years, people have had the opportunity to leave Earth and study stars and planets, not only by observing them through telescopes, but also by receiving information directly from space. The satellites launched are equipped with sophisticated equipment, with the help of which amazing discoveries have been made that astronomers did not believe in the existence, for example, black holes and new planets.
Since the launch of the first artificial satellite into outer space in October 1957, many satellites and robotic probes have been sent beyond our planet. Thanks to them, scientists “visited” almost all the main planets of the Solar System, as well as their satellites, asteroids, and comets. Such launches are carried out constantly, and today new generation probes continue their flight to other planets, obtaining and transmitting all information to Earth.
Some rockets are designed to only reach the upper atmosphere and are not fast enough to reach space. To go beyond the atmosphere, the rocket needs to overcome the force of gravity of the Earth, and this requires a certain speed. If the speed of a rocket is 28,500 km/h, then it will fly with an acceleration equal to the force of gravity. As a result, it will continue to fly around the Earth in a circle. To completely overcome the force of gravity, the rocket must move at a speed greater than 40,320 km/h. Having entered orbit, some spacecraft, using the gravitational energy of the Earth and other planets, can thereby increase their own speed for a further leap into space. This is called the "sling effect".
TO THE BORDERS OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM
Satellites and space probes have been repeatedly launched to the inner planets: the Russian Venus, the American Mariner to Mercury and the Viking to Mars. Launched in 1972-1973. The American probes Pioneer 10 and Pioneer 11 reached the outer planets - Jupiter and Saturn. In 1977, Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 were also launched to Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune. Some of these probes still continue to fly at the very edges of the solar system and will send information to Earth until 2020, and some have already left the solar system.
FLIGHTS TO THE MOON
The Moon closest to us has always been and remains a very attractive object for scientific research. Since we always see only that part of the Moon that is illuminated by the Sun, its invisible part was of particular interest to us. The first flyby of the Moon and photographing its far side was carried out by the Soviet automatic interplanetary station “Luna-3” in 1959. If quite recently scientists simply dreamed of flying to the Moon, today their plans go much further: earthlings consider this planet as a source of valuable rocks and minerals. From 1969 to 1972, the Apollo spacecraft, launched into orbit by the Saturn V launch vehicle, made several flights to the Moon and brought people there. And so, on July 21, 1969, the first person set foot on the Silver Planet. They became Neil Armstrong, commander of the American spacecraft Apollo 11, as well as Edwin Aldrin. The astronauts collected samples of lunar rock and conducted a series of experiments on it, data about which continued to flow to Earth for a long time after their return. Two expeditions on the Apollo 11 and Apollo 12 spacecraft allowed us to accumulate some information about human behavior on the Moon. The protective equipment created helped astronauts live and work in conditions of hostile vacuum and abnormal temperatures. Lunar gravity turned out to be very favorable for the work of the astronauts, who did not find any physical or psychological difficulties.
The Prospector space probe (USA) was launched in September 1997. After a short flight in low-Earth orbit, it rushed towards the Moon and entered its orbit five days after launch. This American probe is designed to collect and transmit to Earth information about the composition of the surface and interior of the Moon. There are no cameras on it, but there are instruments for carrying out the necessary research directly from orbit, from a height
The Japanese space probe Lunar-A is designed to study the composition of the rocks that form the lunar surface. Lunar-A, while in orbit, sends three small probes to the Moon. Each of them is equipped with a seismometer to measure the strength of “moonquakes” and an instrument to measure the deep heat of the Moon. All data received by them is transmitted to Lunar-A, located in orbit at an altitude of 250 km from the Moon.
Although man has already visited the Moon several times, he has never discovered any life there. But interest in the question of the population of the Moon (if not in the present, then in the past) is intensifying and fueled by various kinds of reports from Russian and American researchers. For example, about the discovery of ice at the bottom of one of the lunar craters. Other materials on this topic are also published. You can refer to the article by Albert Valentinov (a scientific columnist for Rossiyskaya Gazeta) in its issue dated May 16, 1997. It talks about secret photographs of the lunar surface, kept behind seven seals in Pentagon safes. The published photographs show destroyed cities in the area of the Ukert crater (the image itself was taken from a satellite). One photograph clearly shows a gigantic embankment 3 km high, similar to the wall of a city fortification with towers. In another photo there is an even more huge hill, consisting of several towers.
Scientific research carried out in space covers various branches of four sciences: astronomy, physics, geophysics and biology. True, such a distinction is often conditional. Studying, for example, cosmic rays far from Earth is an astronomical rather than a physical task. But both by tradition and by virtue of the methodology used, the study of cosmic rays is usually classified as physics. The same, however, can be said about the study of the Earth's radiation belts, which we considered a geophysical problem. By the way, most of the problems studied on satellites and rockets are sometimes classified as a new science - experimental astronomy.
This name, however, is not generally accepted and may not catch on. In the future, the terminology will probably be clarified in some way, but one can think that the classification adopted here will not lead to misunderstandings.
WHY DO YOU NEED SATELLITES OR SPACE ROCKETS!
The answer to this question is obvious when it comes to the study of the Moon and planets, the interstellar medium, the earth's ionosphere and exosphere. In other cases, satellites are needed to go beyond the atmosphere, ionosphere, or the Earth's magnetic field.
In fact, our Earth is surrounded by three armor belts. The first belt - the atmosphere - is a layer of air weighing 1000 g per square centimeter of the earth's surface. The air mass is concentrated mainly in a layer 10-20 km thick. The weight of this layer is equal to the weight of a layer of water 10 m thick. In other words, from the point of view of absorption of various extraterrestrial radiations, we seem to be under a 10-meter layer of water. Even a bad diver imagines that such a layer is by no means thin. The atmosphere strongly absorbs ultraviolet rays (wavelengths shorter than 3,500-4,000 angstroms) and infrared radiation (wavelengths greater than 10,000 angstroms).
This layer also does not transmit x-rays, gamma rays of cosmic origin, as well as primary cosmic rays (fast charged particles - protons, nuclei and electrons) coming from space.
For visible rays, the atmosphere is transparent in cloudless times, but even in this case it interferes with observations, causing the twinkling of stars and other phenomena caused by air movement, dust, etc. That is why large telescopes are installed on mountains in especially favorable areas, but also in Under these conditions, they operate at full capacity only a small part of the time.
To get rid of absorption in the atmosphere, it is usually enough to raise the equipment 20-40 km, which can also be done with the help of balloons. It is not always enough, however, to rise to such a height. In addition, the balloons can survive in the atmosphere for only a few hours and collect information only in the launch area. A satellite can fly for an almost unlimited time and (in the case of close satellites) circles the entire globe in 1.5 hours.
The second armor belt - the earth's ionosphere - begins from a height of several tens and extends to hundreds of kilometers above the Earth's surface. In this region, the gas is highly ionized and the concentration of electrons - their number per cubic centimeter - is quite significant. Above 1,000 km there is very little gas, but still up to about 20,000 km the gas concentration is several hundred particles per cubic centimeter.
This region is sometimes called the exosphere, or geocorona. It differs from the ionosphere only in that here particles practically do not collide with each other; the gas concentration in this region is approximately constant. Even further from the Earth (both in its vicinity and during the transition to interplanetary space), there is almost no information about the density of gas. It is currently believed that the gas concentration here is less than 100 particles per cubic centimeter.
The ionosphere usually does not transmit radio waves longer than 30 m (longer waves - up to 200-300 m - can pass through the ionosphere at night; in some cases very long waves also pass through). In addition, even if a radio wave of cosmic origin reaches the Earth, the ionosphere distorts it to one degree or another, and these distortions are noticeable even for meter waves. The ionosphere also does not transmit soft (long-wave) X-rays and distant ultraviolet rays (waves with a length from tens to approximately 1,000 angstroms).
The Earth's third armor belt is its magnetic field. It extends over 20-25 Earth radii, that is, approximately 100,000 km (this entire area is sometimes called the Earth's magnetosphere). At large distances, the earth's field is of the same order (or less) as the magnetic field in interplanetary space and therefore does not play a special role. The Earth's magnetic field does not allow charged particles with not too high energy to approach the Earth, not to mention the polar regions. For example, at the equator in the vertical direction the Earth can be reached by protons (nuclei of atoms) coming from space only with an energy greater than 15 billion electron volts. This energy is possessed by a proton accelerated in an electric field with a potential difference equal to 15 billion volts.
From here it is clear that, depending on the nature of the task, it is necessary to raise the equipment above several tens of kilometers (atmosphere), above hundreds of kilometers (ionosphere), or even move away from the Earth by many tens of thousands of kilometers (magnetic field).
IONOSPHERE AND EARTH'S MAGNETIC FIELD
Only rockets and satellites make it possible to directly study the ionosphere and the Earth's magnetic field at high altitudes.
One of the observation methods used is as follows. There is a transmitter on board the satellite that emits waves with a frequency of 20 and 90 megahertz (the wavelength in vacuum is 15 m 333 cm, respectively). It is important that the phase difference between both of these oscillations (waves) in the transmitter itself is strictly fixed. When both waves pass through the ionosphere, their phases change, and in different ways. The ionosphere has almost no influence on the high-frequency oscillation (90 megahertz), and the wave propagates almost the same as in a vacuum. On the contrary, the passage through the ionosphere leaves its mark on low-frequency oscillations (20 megahertz). Therefore, in the receiving device, the phase difference between the oscillations in both waves is already different from the phase difference in the transmitter. The change in phase difference is directly related to the total number of electrons located in the line of sight between the satellite and the receiver. Using this and other methods, it is possible to obtain “sections” of the ionosphere in all those directions in which it is illuminated by a radio beam coming from the satellite.
As for the earth's magnetic field, its direction and magnitude are determined using special instruments - magnetometers. There are different types of such devices, some of them have been successfully used on space rockets.
For obvious reasons, it was the first extraterrestrial celestial body to which space rockets rushed. Research has found that the Moon's magnetic field is at least 500 times weaker than Earth's, and possibly even weaker. The Moon also does not have a pronounced ionosphere, that is, a layer of ionized gas surrounding it. Photographs of the far side of the Moon were obtained. There is no doubt that in the near future more detailed photographs of the Moon will be obtained, and selenography (“lunar
geography") will be enriched with many new discoveries.
In addition, many new problems have arisen regarding lunar exploration. For example, it is necessary to study seismic activity on the Moon. It is still not clear whether the Moon is a completely cold body or whether volcanoes erupt on it from time to time and earthquakes occur (apparently, it is more correct to call them moonquakes). How to solve this issue! Obviously, it is necessary to land a seismograph on the Moon and record vibrations of the lunar surface, if any. You can also determine the radioactivity of lunar rocks and some of their other properties. All this will be done by automatic instruments, and the results they obtain will be transmitted via radio to Earth. There is also no doubt that in the future the Moon will be used as a space station for a whole range of research. There are ideal conditions for this: the Moon has neither atmospheric, nor ionospheric, nor, finally, magnetic armor. In other words, the Moon has the same advantages as distant artificial satellites; at the same time, it is more convenient and simpler to use in many respects.
UP NEXT - MARS AND VENUS
We know quite little about planets. More precisely, our information about them is very one-sided; we know a lot about some issues, but very little about others. Until now, for example, there is a debate about whether there is vegetation on, what are the climatic conditions on this planet, what is the chemical composition of the atmosphere. Much has been written about it, and the challenges facing its researchers are well known. Suffice it to say that the surface of Venus is very poorly visible, so we know even less about it than about the surface of Mars. By the way, with regard to Venus, even the period of its rotation is unknown with certainty; it is not known whether it has a magnetic field. The existence of the field has not been established for Mars either. These unresolved questions must be clarified with the help of space rockets.
After Mars and Venus, the next interesting object of study will be the largest planet in the solar system, a planet with a number of features. I would like to mention one of them. Jupiter is a source of very powerful radio waves, emitted, for example, in the fifteen-meter range. This is a peculiar phenomenon that is now being studied using radio astronomical methods. Jupiter will and should also be studied with the help of satellites.
To be continued.
P.S. What else are British scientists thinking about: that in further space exploration they will have to write special safety requirements in emergency situations when working on space stations, or even in outer space, where many dangers await an astronaut-researcher.
The science
The more advanced technologies become, the more opportunities open up for scientists and the more we can learn about our Universe. Every year space reveals more and more of its secrets to us; in the near future we will probably learn something that we could not even guess about before. Find out what discoveries in the field of space have been made in recent years.
1) Another satellite of Pluto
To date, 4 satellites of Pluto are already known. Charon was discovered in 1978 and is its largest satellite. This moon's diameter is 1,205 kilometers, leading many scientists to believe that Pluto is actually a "double dwarf planet." Nothing new was heard about the icy bodies that orbit Pluto until 2005, when the space telescope "Hubble" I did not discover 2 more satellites - Nikta and Hydra. The diameter of these cosmic bodies is from 50 to 110 kilometers. But the most amazing discovery awaited scientists in 2011, when "Hubble" managed to capture another satellite of Pluto, which is temporarily called P4. Its diameter is only 13 to 34 kilometers. What is noteworthy in this case is that "Hubble" photographed such a tiny space object, which is located at a distance of about 5 billion kilometers from us.
2) Giant cosmic magnetic bubbles
Two NASA spacecraft "Voyager" discovered magnetic bubbles in the region of the solar system known as Heliosphere, which is located 15 billion kilometers from Earth. In the 1950s, scientists believed that this region of outer space was relatively flat, but when "Voyager 1" reached the Heliosphere in 2005, and "Voyager 2" In 2008, they detected turbulence generated by the Sun's magnetic field, where magnetic bubbles with a diameter of about 160 million kilometers are formed.
3) Tail of the star Mira A
In 2007, the orbiting space telescope GALEX scanned Mira A, an old red dwarf star, as part of an upcoming project to scan the entire sky in ultraviolet light. Astronomers were shocked when they discovered that Mira A has a long tail trailing behind it, like a comet, which extends about 13 light years. This star moves through the Universe at an unusually high speed, approximately 470 thousand kilometers per hour. Before this, it was believed that stars did not have tails.
4) Water on the Moon
October 9, 2009 NASA's Lunar Crater Observation and Sensing Spacecraft LCROSS discovered water in a cold and constantly shadowed crater at the south pole of the Moon. LCROSS is a NASA probe that was designed to collide with the lunar surface, and a small satellite following it would measure the chemical composition of the material that rose up on impact. After a year of data analysis, NASA has reported that our satellite has water in the form of ice, which is located at the bottom of this eternally dark crater. Later, other data showed that a thin layer of water covers the lunar soil, at least in some areas of the Moon.
5) Dwarf planet Eris
In January 2005, a new planet of the solar system, Eris, was discovered, which caused a lot of controversy in the astronomical world about what should be considered a planet in general. Eris was initially considered the 10th planet of the solar system, but then all objects in the Kuiper belt and asteroid belt were equated to a new class - dwarf planets. Eris lies beyond the orbit of Pluto and is about the same size, although it was originally thought to be larger than Pluto. It is known that Eris has one satellite, which was named Dysnomia. So far, Eris and Dysnomia are considered the most distant objects in the solar system.
6) Traces of water flows on Mars
In 2011, NASA, providing photographs of the Red Planet, made a statement that it had evidence that water may have flowed on Mars in the past, which left traces. Indeed, the images show long streaks similar to those left in the rocks by flowing streams. Scientists believe these currents are salt water that heats up during the summer months and begins to flow over the surface. Signs that Mars once had liquid water have been found before, but this is the first time scientists have noticed that these traces change over a short period of time.
7) Saturn’s moon Enceladus and its geysers
In July 2004, the spacecraft "Cassini" entered orbit around Saturn. After the mission "Voyager" approached this satellite, the researchers decided to launch another device into the area for a more detailed study of Enceladus. After "Cassini" flew past the satellite several times in 2005, scientists were able to make a number of discoveries, in particular, that in the atmosphere of Enceladus there is water vapor and complex hydrocarbon compounds that are released from the geologically active region of the South Pole. In May 2011, NASA scientists at a conference dedicated to this satellite stated that Enceladus can be considered the very first candidate for the discovery of life.
8) Dark Stream
The dark flow, discovered in 2008, has left scientists with more questions than answers. Clusters of matter in the Universe appear to be moving at very high speeds in the same direction, which cannot be explained by any known gravitational force within the observable part of the Universe. This phenomenon was called "Dark Stream". By observing large clusters of galaxies, scientists have discovered about 700 galaxy clusters moving at a certain speed towards the distant part of the Universe. Some scientists even dared to suggest that the Dark Stream moves due to pressure caused by another Universe. However, some astronomers dispute the existence of the dark stream altogether.
9) Exoplanets
The first exoplanets, that is, planets existing outside the solar system, were discovered in 1992. Astronomers have discovered several small planets orbiting the star Pulsar. The first giant planet was spotted in 1995 near the nearby star 51 Pegasus, which made a complete revolution around this star in 4 days. By May 2012, 770 exoplanets were already registered in the Encyclopedia of Exoplanets. 614 of them are part of planetary systems and 104 are multiple planetary systems. By February 2012, NASA mission "Kepler" identified 2,321 unconfirmed exoplanet candidates associated with 1,790 stars.
10) First planet in the habitable zone
In December 2011, NASA confirmed reports of the discovery of the first planet that is located in the habitable zone, orbiting its Sun-like host star. The planet was named Kepler-22b. Its radius is 2.5 times the radius of the Earth, and it orbits its star in a zone suitable for the emergence of life. Scientists are not yet sure about the composition of this planet, but this discovery was a major step towards discovering Earth-like worlds.
The history of space exploration is the most striking example of the triumph of the human mind over rebellious matter in the shortest possible time. From the moment a man-made object first overcame Earth's gravity and developed sufficient speed to enter Earth's orbit, only a little over fifty years have passed - nothing by the standards of history! Most of the planet's population vividly remembers the times when a flight to the moon was considered something out of science fiction, and those who dreamed of piercing the heavenly heights were considered, at best, crazy people not dangerous to society. Today, spaceships not only “travel the vast expanse”, successfully maneuvering in conditions of minimal gravity, but also deliver cargo, astronauts and space tourists into Earth orbit. Moreover, the duration of a space flight can now be as long as desired: the shift of Russian cosmonauts on the ISS, for example, lasts 6-7 months. And over the past half century, man has managed to walk on the Moon and photograph its dark side, blessed Mars, Jupiter, Saturn and Mercury with artificial satellites, “recognized by sight” distant nebulae with the help of the Hubble telescope, and is seriously thinking about colonizing Mars. And although we have not yet succeeded in making contact with aliens and angels (at least officially), let us not despair - after all, everything is just beginning!
Dreams of space and attempts at writing
For the first time, progressive humanity believed in the reality of flight to distant worlds at the end of the 19th century. It was then that it became clear that if the aircraft was given the speed necessary to overcome gravity and maintained it for a sufficient time, it would be able to go beyond the Earth’s atmosphere and gain a foothold in orbit, like the Moon, revolving around the Earth. The problem was in the engines. The existing specimens at that time either spat extremely powerfully but briefly with bursts of energy, or worked on the principle of “gasp, groan and go away little by little.” The first was more suitable for bombs, the second - for carts. In addition, it was impossible to regulate the thrust vector and thereby influence the trajectory of the apparatus: a vertical launch inevitably led to its rounding, and as a result the body fell to the ground, never reaching space; the horizontal one, with such a release of energy, threatened to destroy all living things around (as if the current ballistic missile were launched flat). Finally, at the beginning of the 20th century, researchers turned their attention to a rocket engine, the operating principle of which has been known to mankind since the turn of our era: fuel burns in the rocket body, simultaneously lightening its mass, and the released energy moves the rocket forward. The first rocket capable of launching an object beyond the limits of gravity was designed by Tsiolkovsky in 1903.
View of Earth from the ISS
First artificial satellite
Time passed, and although two world wars greatly slowed down the process of creating rockets for peaceful use, space progress still did not stand still. The key moment of the post-war period was the adoption of the so-called package rocket layout, which is still used in astronautics today. Its essence is the simultaneous use of several rockets placed symmetrically with respect to the center of mass of the body that needs to be launched into Earth orbit. This provides a powerful, stable and uniform thrust, sufficient for the object to move at a constant speed of 7.9 km/s, necessary to overcome gravity. And so, on October 4, 1957, a new, or rather the first, era in space exploration began - the launch of the first artificial Earth satellite, like everything ingenious, simply called “Sputnik-1”, using the R-7 rocket, designed under the leadership of Sergei Korolev. The silhouette of the R-7, the ancestor of all subsequent space rockets, is still recognizable today in the ultra-modern Soyuz launch vehicle, which successfully sends “trucks” and “cars” into orbit with cosmonauts and tourists on board - the same four “legs” of the package design and red nozzles. The first satellite was microscopic, just over half a meter in diameter and weighed only 83 kg. It completed a full revolution around the Earth in 96 minutes. The “star life” of the iron pioneer of astronautics lasted three months, but during this period he covered a fantastic path of 60 million km!
The first living creatures in orbit
The success of the first launch inspired the designers, and the prospect of sending a living creature into space and returning it unharmed no longer seemed impossible. Just a month after the launch of Sputnik 1, the first animal, the dog Laika, went into orbit on board the second artificial Earth satellite. Her goal was honorable, but sad - to test the survival of living beings in space flight conditions. Moreover, the return of the dog was not planned... The launch and insertion of the satellite into orbit was successful, but after four orbits around the Earth, due to an error in the calculations, the temperature inside the device rose excessively, and Laika died. The satellite itself rotated in space for another 5 months, and then lost speed and burned up in dense layers of the atmosphere. The first shaggy cosmonauts to greet their “senders” with a joyful bark upon their return were the textbook Belka and Strelka, who set off to conquer the heavens on the fifth satellite in August 1960. Their flight lasted just over a day, and during this time the dogs managed to fly around the planet 17 times. All this time, they were watched from monitor screens in the Mission Control Center - by the way, it was precisely because of the contrast that white dogs were chosen - because the image was then black and white. As a result of the launch, the spacecraft itself was also finalized and finally approved - in just 8 months, the first person will go into space in a similar apparatus.
In addition to dogs, both before and after 1961, monkeys (macaques, squirrel monkeys and chimpanzees), cats, turtles, as well as all sorts of little things - flies, beetles, etc., were in space.
During the same period, the USSR launched the first artificial satellite of the Sun, the Luna-2 station managed to softly land on the surface of the planet, and the first photographs of the side of the Moon invisible from Earth were obtained.
The day of April 12, 1961 divided the history of the exploration of space into two periods - “when man dreamed of the stars” and “since man conquered space.”
Man in space
The day of April 12, 1961 divided the history of the exploration of space into two periods - “when man dreamed of the stars” and “since man conquered space.” At 9:07 Moscow time, the Vostok-1 spacecraft with the world's first cosmonaut on board, Yuri Gagarin, was launched from launch pad No. 1 of the Baikonur Cosmodrome. Having made one revolution around the Earth and traveled 41 thousand km, 90 minutes after the start, Gagarin landed near Saratov, becoming for many years the most famous, revered and beloved person on the planet. His “let’s go!” and “everything is visible very clearly - space is black - the earth is blue” were included in the list of the most famous phrases of humanity, his open smile, ease and cordiality melted the hearts of people around the world. The first manned flight into space was controlled from Earth; Gagarin himself was more of a passenger, albeit an excellently prepared one. It should be noted that the flight conditions were far from those that are now offered to space tourists: Gagarin experienced eight to tenfold overloads, there was a period when the ship was literally tumbling, and behind the windows the skin was burning and the metal was melting. During the flight, several failures occurred in various systems of the ship, but fortunately, the astronaut was not injured.
Following Gagarin's flight, significant milestones in the history of space exploration fell one after another: the world's first group space flight was completed, then the first female cosmonaut Valentina Tereshkova went into space (1963), the first multi-seat spacecraft flew, Alexey Leonov became the first a man who performed a spacewalk (1965) - and all these grandiose events are entirely the merit of the Russian cosmonautics. Finally, on July 21, 1969, the first man landed on the Moon: American Neil Armstrong took that “small, big step.”
Best View in the Solar System
Cosmonautics - today, tomorrow and always
Today, space travel is taken for granted. Hundreds of satellites and thousands of other necessary and useless objects fly above us, seconds before sunrise from the bedroom window you can see the planes of the solar panels of the International Space Station flashing in rays still invisible from the ground, space tourists with enviable regularity set off to “surf the open spaces” (thereby embodying the ironic phrase “if you really want to, you can fly into space”) and the era of commercial suborbital flights with almost two departures daily is about to begin. The exploration of space by controlled vehicles is absolutely amazing: there are pictures of stars that exploded long ago, and HD images of distant galaxies, and strong evidence of the possibility of the existence of life on other planets. Billionaire corporations are already coordinating plans to build space hotels in Earth’s orbit, and projects for the colonization of our neighboring planets no longer seem like an excerpt from the novels of Asimov or Clark. One thing is obvious: once having overcome earth's gravity, humanity will again and again strive upward, to the endless worlds of stars, galaxies and universes. I would only like to wish that the beauty of the night sky and myriads of twinkling stars, still alluring, mysterious and beautiful, as in the first days of creation, never leaves us.
Space reveals its secrets
Academician Blagonravov dwelled on some new achievements of Soviet science: in the field of space physics.
Beginning on January 2, 1959, each flight of Soviet space rockets conducted a study of radiation at large distances from the Earth. The so-called outer radiation belt of the Earth, discovered by Soviet scientists, was subjected to detailed study. Studying the composition of particles in radiation belts using various scintillation and gas-discharge counters located on satellites and space rockets made it possible to establish that the outer belt contains electrons of significant energies up to a million electron volts and even higher. When braking in the shells of spacecraft, they create intense piercing X-ray radiation. During the flight of the automatic interplanetary station towards Venus, the average energy of this X-ray radiation was determined at distances from 30 to 40 thousand kilometers from the center of the Earth, amounting to about 130 kiloelectronvolts. This value changed little with the distance, which allows one to judge that the energy spectrum of electrons in this region is constant.
Already the first studies showed the instability of the outer radiation belt, movements of maximum intensity associated with magnetic storms caused by solar corpuscular flows. Recent measurements from an automatic interplanetary station launched towards Venus have shown that although changes in intensity occur closer to Earth, the outer boundary of the outer belt, in a quiet state of the magnetic field, remained constant for almost two years both in intensity and spatial location. Research in recent years has also made it possible to construct a model of the ionized gas shell of the Earth based on experimental data for a period close to the maximum of solar activity. Our studies have shown that at altitudes of less than a thousand kilometers, the main role is played by atomic oxygen ions, and starting from altitudes lying between one and two thousand kilometers, hydrogen ions predominate in the ionosphere. The extent of the outermost region of the Earth's ionized gas shell, the so-called hydrogen “corona,” is very large.
Processing of the results of measurements carried out on the first Soviet space rockets showed that at altitudes of approximately 50 to 75 thousand kilometers outside the outer radiation belt, electron flows with energies exceeding 200 electron volts were detected. This allowed us to assume the existence of a third outermost belt of charged particles with a high flux intensity, but lower energy. After the launch of the American Pioneer V space rocket in March 1960, data were obtained that confirmed our assumptions about the existence of a third belt of charged particles. This belt is apparently formed as a result of the penetration of solar corpuscular flows into the peripheral regions of the Earth's magnetic field.
New data were obtained regarding the spatial location of the Earth's radiation belts, and an area of increased radiation was discovered in the southern part of the Atlantic Ocean, which is associated with a corresponding terrestrial magnetic anomaly. In this area, the lower boundary of the Earth's internal radiation belt drops to 250 - 300 kilometers from the Earth's surface.
The flights of the second and third satellites provided new information that made it possible to map the distribution of radiation by ion intensity over the surface of the globe. (The speaker demonstrates this map to the audience).
For the first time, currents created by positive ions included in solar corpuscular radiation were recorded outside the Earth's magnetic field at distances of the order of hundreds of thousands of kilometers from the Earth, using three-electrode charged particle traps installed on Soviet space rockets. In particular, on the automatic interplanetary station launched towards Venus, traps were installed oriented towards the Sun, one of which was intended to record solar corpuscular radiation. On February 17, during a communication session with the automatic interplanetary station, its passage through a significant flow of corpuscles (with a density of about 10 9 particles per square centimeter per second) was recorded. This observation coincided with the observation of a magnetic storm. Such experiments open the way to establishing quantitative relationships between geomagnetic disturbances and the intensity of solar corpuscular flows. On the second and third satellites, the radiation hazard caused by cosmic radiation outside the Earth's atmosphere was studied in quantitative terms. The same satellites were used to study the chemical composition of primary cosmic radiation. The new equipment installed on the satellite ships included a photoemulsion device designed to expose and develop stacks of thick-film emulsions directly on board the ship. The results obtained are of great scientific value for elucidating the biological influence of cosmic radiation.
Flight technical problems
Next, the speaker focused on a number of significant problems that ensured the organization of human flight into space. First of all, it was necessary to resolve the issue of methods for launching a heavy ship into orbit, for which it was necessary to have powerful rocket technology. We have created such a technique. However, it was not enough to inform the ship of a speed exceeding the first cosmic speed. High precision of launching the ship into a pre-calculated orbit was also necessary.
It should be borne in mind that the requirements for the accuracy of orbital movement will increase in the future. This will require movement correction using special propulsion systems. Related to the problem of trajectory correction is the problem of maneuvering a directional change in the flight trajectory of a spacecraft. Maneuvers can be carried out with the help of impulses transmitted by a jet engine in individual specially selected sections of trajectories, or with the help of thrust that lasts for a long time, for the creation of which electric jet engines (ion, plasma) are used.
Examples of maneuvers include transition to a higher orbit, transition to an orbit entering the dense layers of the atmosphere for braking and landing in a given area. The latter type of maneuver was used when landing Soviet satellite ships with dogs on board and when landing the Vostok satellite.
To carry out a maneuver, perform a number of measurements and for other purposes, it is necessary to ensure stabilization of the satellite ship and its orientation in space, maintained for a certain period of time or changed according to a given program.
Turning to the problem of returning to Earth, the speaker focused on the following issues: speed deceleration, protection from heating when moving in dense layers of the atmosphere, ensuring landing in a given area.
The braking of the spacecraft, necessary to dampen the cosmic speed, can be carried out either using a special powerful propulsion system, or by braking the apparatus in the atmosphere. The first of these methods requires very large reserves of weight. Using atmospheric resistance for braking allows you to get by with relatively little additional weight.
The complex of problems associated with the development of protective coatings during braking of a vehicle in the atmosphere and the organization of the entry process with overloads acceptable for the human body represents a complex scientific and technical problem.
The rapid development of space medicine has put on the agenda the issue of biological telemetry as the main means of medical monitoring and scientific medical research during space flight. The use of radio telemetry leaves a specific imprint on the methodology and technology of biomedical research, since a number of special requirements are imposed on the equipment placed on board spacecraft. This equipment should have very light weight and small dimensions. It should be designed for minimal energy consumption. In addition, the onboard equipment must operate stably during the active phase and during descent, when vibrations and overloads are present.
Sensors designed to convert physiological parameters into electrical signals must be miniature and designed for long-term operation. They should not create inconvenience for the astronaut.
The widespread use of radio telemetry in space medicine forces researchers to pay serious attention to the design of such equipment, as well as to matching the volume of information necessary for transmission with the capacity of radio channels. Since new challenges facing space medicine will lead to further deepening of research and the need to significantly increase the number of recorded parameters, the introduction of systems that store information and coding methods will be required.
In conclusion, the speaker dwelled on the question of why the option of orbiting the Earth was chosen for the first space travel. This option represented a decisive step towards the conquest of outer space. They provided research into the issue of the influence of flight duration on a person, solved the problem of controlled flight, the problem of controlling the descent, entering the dense layers of the atmosphere and safely returning to Earth. Compared to this, the flight recently carried out in the USA seems of little value. It could be important as an intermediate option for checking a person’s condition during the acceleration stage, during overloads during descent; but after Yu. Gagarin’s flight there was no longer a need for such a check. In this version of the experiment, the element of sensation certainly prevailed. The only value of this flight can be seen in testing the operation of the developed systems that ensure entry into the atmosphere and landing, but, as we have seen, the testing of similar systems developed in our Soviet Union for more difficult conditions was reliably carried out even before the first human space flight. Thus, the achievements achieved in our country on April 12, 1961 cannot be compared in any way with what has been achieved so far in the United States.
And no matter how hard, the academician says, people abroad who are hostile to the Soviet Union try to belittle the successes of our science and technology with their fabrications, the whole world evaluates these successes properly and sees how much our country has moved forward along the path of technical progress. I personally witnessed the delight and admiration that was caused by the news of the historic flight of our first cosmonaut among the broad masses of the Italian people.
The flight was extremely successful
Academician N. M. Sissakyan made a report on the biological problems of space flights. He described the main stages in the development of space biology and summed up some of the results of scientific biological research related to space flights.
The speaker cited the medical and biological characteristics of Yu. A. Gagarin's flight. In the cabin, barometric pressure was maintained within 750 - 770 millimeters of mercury, air temperature - 19 - 22 degrees Celsius, relative humidity - 62 - 71 percent.
In the pre-launch period, approximately 30 minutes before the launch of the spacecraft, the heart rate was 66 per minute, the respiratory rate was 24. Three minutes before the launch, some emotional stress manifested itself in an increase in the pulse rate to 109 beats per minute, breathing continued to remain even and calm.
At the moment the spacecraft took off and gradually gained speed, the heart rate increased to 140 - 158 per minute, the respiratory rate was 20 - 26. Changes in physiological indicators during the active phase of the flight, according to telemetric recordings of electrocardiograms and pneimograms, were within acceptable limits. By the end of the active section, the heart rate was already 109, and the respiration rate was 18 per minute. In other words, these indicators reached the values characteristic of the moment closest to the start.
During the transition to weightlessness and flight in this state, the indicators of the cardiovascular and respiratory systems consistently approached the initial values. So, already in the tenth minute of weightlessness, the pulse rate reached 97 beats per minute, breathing - 22. Performance was not impaired, movements retained coordination and the necessary accuracy.
During the descent section, during braking of the apparatus, when overloads arose again, short-term, rapidly passing periods of increased breathing were noted. However, already upon approaching the Earth, breathing became even, calm, with a frequency of about 16 per minute.
Three hours after landing, the heart rate was 68, breathing was 20 per minute, i.e., values characteristic of the calm, normal state of Yu. A. Gagarin.
All this indicates that the flight was extremely successful, the health and general condition of the cosmonaut during all parts of the flight was satisfactory. Life support systems were working normally.
In conclusion, the speaker focused on the most important upcoming problems of space biology.